Decoding Solar Panel Output: Voltages, Acronyms, and Jargon. Solar cell module array * KYOKUSHO.COM

US6350944B1. Solar module array with reconfigurable tile. Google Patents

Publication number US6350944B1 US6350944B1 US09/580,286 US58028600A US6350944B1 US 6350944 B1 US6350944 B1 US 6350944B1 US 58028600 A US58028600 A US 58028600A US 6350944 B1 US6350944 B1 US 6350944B1 Authority US United States Prior art keywords solar solar cells solar cell voltage output integrated circuit Prior art date 2000-05-30 Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.) Expired. Lifetime Application number US09/580,286 Inventor Raed A. Sherif Karim S. Boutros Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.) DirecTV Group Inc Original Assignee Hughes Electronics Corp Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.) 2000-05-30 Filing date 2000-05-30 Publication date 2002-02-26 2000-05-30 Application filed by Hughes Electronics Corp filed Critical Hughes Electronics Corp 2000-05-30 Priority to US09/580,286 priority Critical patent/US6350944B1/en 2000-05-30 Assigned to HUGHES ELECTRONICS CORPORATION reassignment HUGHES ELECTRONICS CORPORATION ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: BOUTROS, KARIM S., SHERIF, RAED A. 2001-04-20 Priority to EP01109720.1A priority patent/EP1160876B1/en 2001-05-29 Priority to JP2001160585A priority patent/JP2002050782A/en 2002-02-26 Application granted granted Critical 2002-02-26 Publication of US6350944B1 publication Critical patent/US6350944B1/en 2020-05-30 Anticipated expiration legal-status Critical Status Expired. Lifetime legal-status Critical Current

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Classifications

H — ELECTRICITY
H01 — ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
H01L — SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
H01L31/00 — Semiconductor devices sensitive to infra-red radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
H01L31/04 — Semiconductor devices sensitive to infra-red radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices
H01L31/042 — PV modules or arrays of single PV cells

Y — GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y02 — TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
Y02E — REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
Y02E10/00 — Energy generation through renewable energy sources
Y02E10/50 — Photovoltaic [PV] energy

Y — GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10 — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
Y10S — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10S136/00 — Batteries: thermoelectric and photoelectric
Y10S136/291 — Applications
Y10S136/292 — Space. satellite

Y — GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10 — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
Y10S — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10S136/00 — Batteries: thermoelectric and photoelectric
Y10S136/291 — Applications
Y10S136/293 — Circuits

Y — GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10 — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
Y10S — TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10S323/00 — Electricity: power supply or regulation systems
Y10S323/906 — Solar cell systems

Abstract

A reconfigurable solar panel system having a plurality of solar cells arranged in a predefined pattern on a printed circuit board having a predefined pattern of interconnection paths to form at least one solar cell module. The solar panel being made of at least one solar cell module and having the capability to be configured and reconfigured by programming at least one integrated circuit that communicates with each and every solar cell on the solar module. The present invention is capable of monitoring, controlling, and protecting the solar panel, as well as being reconfigured before, during and after the panel is assembled. With the present invention it is also possible to reconfigure the solar panel after it has been employed in an application, such as a satellite that is in orbit.

Description

The present invention relates to a solar cell assembly and more particularly to a reconfigurable solar cell assembly.

Solar cells are an important source of power, particularly in space applications. Typically, a plurality of cells are supported on a substrate and electrically interconnected in a fixed pattern. The substrate may be rigid or flexible.

The fixed pattern typically requires hard wired interconnects between solar cells on a solar cell assembly. Generally, a solar cell array will be mounted to a printed circuit board, and the individual solar cells will be wired together in a fixed pattern on the printed circuit board that is pre-defined before the solar panel assembly, by the specific application the solar cell array is designed for. There are many known methods of packaging and mounting solar cells to a printed circuit board. However, the solar cell array is designed and manufactured for specific applications and typically the array has limited flexibility. It is difficult, if not impossible, to change the specifications of prior art solar cell arrays once the array has been assembled.

The present invention is a reconfigurable solar cell panel having a system of integrated solar-power generation cells with monitoring control and reconfiguration circuitry in a modular array scheme. The present invention is capable of being manufactured using automated processes having a standardized module configuration to simplify the manufacturing process. Continuous monitoring and control of each and every solar cell on a module is possible. It is also possible to control and monitor a group of solar cells assembled in a string. The individual modules can be assembled onto solar panels, and independently configured and reconfigured, in both their current and voltage options, according to the specifications of the panel, the payload, and the spacecraft. According to the present invention, the modifications can be made either at the time of assembly, or after assembly, and even when the spacecraft is in orbit.

In the present invention, a plurality of solar cells are packaged on a printed circuit board to form a solar module, also known as a solar module array reconfigurable tile (Smart) module. A solar panel is made up of a plurality of modules that are electrically connected together. The connections between the solar modules can be made with stress relief loops to absorb any thermal expansion mismatch stresses. The solar cells are connected to the printed circuit board medium using any known techniques currently practiced in the industry, for example, as by soldering or using conductive epoxy.

The printed circuit board is the physical support structure for the array of solar cells and provides the electrical connection paths between the solar cells comprising the solar cell module. Each solar cell on the module is part of a matrix of solar cells. A plurality of modules is assembled into a solar panel.

Each solar cell is uniquely addressable and controllable through the control circuitry and an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit can be employed in a variety of methods in order to control the solar cell array. For example, the programmable integrated circuit chip, which performs the monitoring, control, and reconfiguration of the solar cell module, may be located on the printed circuit board for each solar cell array. In other words, there is one integrated circuit for an entire module. The integrated circuits on each module can communicate with integrated circuits on other modules to enable a re-configurable solar panel that is made up of a plurality of solar modules. Yet another alternative would be to have one integrated circuit that acts as a master control module and controls the entire solar panel.

It is an object of the present invention to provide a solar-power generation system that is modular, versatile and easily manufactured as an interchangeable core unit. It is another object of the present invention to allow for optimization and modification of the electrical configuration of a module of solar cells either before being mounted onto a spacecraft, or being remotely accessed for reconfiguration after the spacecraft is in orbit.

It is a further object of the present invention to simplify the design of solar modules by providing a standardized layout that achieves different electrical configurations by way of integrated circuit control of individual modules and even individual solar cells.

It is yet a further object of the present invention to monitor and control the operation of solar cells such that a group of solar cells may be shunted out when so desired, and activated only when excess power is needed, as for example, at the end of the solar cell’s life.

Other objects and features of the present invention will become apparent when viewed in light of the detailed description of the preferred embodiment when taken in conjunction with the attached drawings and appended claims.

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a solar power generation panel having a plurality of solar modules and an integrated circuit chip;

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of an example reconfiguration scheme for a module of the present invention having an array of solar cells;

FIG. 3 is an electrical circuit representing the function of the integrated circuit control, monitoring and protection of the solar cells in a module; and

FIG. 4 is an electrical circuit representing a group of solar cells that can be activated only when excess power is needed.

The present invention is a reconfigurable solar cell array in which a plurality of solar cells, arranged in an array, are mounted on a printed circuit board to create a solar module. Several solar modules can be arranged and interconnected to create a solar panel. At least one integrated circuit is used to address, configure, and control the solar cell arrays and the solar modules. FIGS. 1-3 generally depict the present invention.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a solar- power generation panel 10 in which a plurality of solar modules 12 are arranged and mounted to the panel 10. An integrated circuit chip 14 acts as a master module controller. The integrated circuit chip 14 is used to configure, interconnect and control the solar modules 12 as desired.

Each solar module 12 is a stand-alone unit that can be monitored and controlled by the integrated circuit chip 14. The modules 12 can be assembled in a variety of series and parallel strings on the solar panel 10. The integrated circuit chip 14 is capable of being programmed to monitor the modules 12, regulate power, and control the individual modules 14 in the array. Additionally, the integrated circuit chip 14 can be programmed to define the interconnections between modules 12 according to the solar panel 10 system design.

Referring now to FIG. 2, there is shown an individual module 12 in greater detail. Each module 12 contains a plurality of solar cells 16 mounted on a printed circuit board 18. All of the internal wiring of the module 12 is contained within the printed circuit board 18. The printed circuit board 18 has the solar cells 16 mounted thereto in an array and contains all of the interconnects and circuitry associated therewith, which would otherwise be difficult to implement using conventional hard wiring techniques.

The printed circuit board 18 allows for easy manufacturing of the complicated array of solar cells 16. The circuitry is predetermined in the printed circuit board 18 and several path options are available between solar cells 16 on the module 12. The paths to be used in the module’s construction 12 are determined by the function that the module 12 is to perform.

The printed circuit board 18 can be either a rigid or flexible material. Typically, the substrate of a solar panel has a honeycomb structure. In the event the printed circuit board is rigid, the thickness of the honeycomb substrate may be reduced to compensate for the extra weight associated with the rigid printed circuit board. Because the rigidity of the printed circuit board provides increased stability to the structure, it is possible to reduce the thickness of the honeycomb substrate without adversely affecting the structure of the solar panel.

In the event the printed circuit board is a flexible material, i.e. a thin sheet, it is possible to mount the printed circuit board directly to the honeycomb structure of the panel before mounting the individual solar cells 16 to the printed circuit board 18. This sequence of assembly is to make it easier to handle the printed circuit board material, i.e. without the added solar cells the flexible sheet is easier to handle during assembly of the solar panel. Alternatively, the solar cells could be mounted to the flexible printed circuit board, and then each printed circuit board is attached to the honeycomb substrate.

In the preferred embodiment, there is a standard configuration for the printed circuit board 18 for each module 12, which includes the layout and interconnection path options for all of the solar cells 16 within the module 12. The standard configuration makes mounting and testing of each of the plurality of solar cells 16 relatively easy. It is also convenient to identify and replace defective cells prior to mounting the module 12 onto a solar panel.

The program in the integrated circuit chip 14 generates the configuration of the interconnection scheme for the solar cells 16. The module 12 allows each cell to be individually addressable using a matrix-labeling scheme, which specifies the cell location on the module 12. FIG. 2 is an example of a simplified array of solar cells 16 having a matrix addressing system. The cells are labeled according to their row and column location. For example, in the first row, there are three columns and the cells 16 are labeled Cell(1,1), Cell(1,2) and Cell(1,3) respectively. Likewise in the second row, there are three columns and the cells 16 are labeled Cell(2,1), Cell(2,2) and Cell(2,3). While only two rows and three columns are shown in the present example, it is to be understood that the number of cells is not limited. One skilled in the art is capable of expanding on what is shown in FIG. 2 to accomplish a much larger array of solar cells 16.

The integrated circuit chip 14 is shown on the module 12. It should be noted that there are several methods of employing the integrated circuit chip 14. For example, it is possible that each module 12 has an individual integrated circuit chip 14 to control the solar cells 16 for that particular module 12. In this embodiment, it is possible that all of the integrated circuit chips on the solar panel can communicate with each other in order to control the overall panel. Another alternative may be that, in addition to each of the integrated circuits located on the modules, a master integrated circuit is located on the panel to communicate with each module’s integrated circuit. Yet another alternative may have only one integrated circuit chip 14 for the entire system located on the solar panel that has the capability of addressing each solar cell on each module in the desired fashion. In any event, one of ordinary skill in the art is capable of designing many possible arrangements for the integrated circuit and how it communicates with the modules and the solar cells.

Also shown in FIG. 2 is a possible interconnection scheme between the individual solar cells 16 on the module 12. A network of transistors 19 connects the solar cells 16 to each other. While transistors 19 are shown, it should be noted that other switching devices may be used to achieve the signal routing scheme desired. The network of transistors 19 allows the interconnection paths to be switched between solar cells 16. The integrated circuit 14 can be programmed to open or dose the switching transistors 19 between cells in order to connect, or disconnect a path therebetween. In this regard, the desired interconnection paths can be created.

In the present invention, the interconnection paths are switchable. Therefore, it is possible to change the path at any time by altering the program in the integrated circuit chip 14. Any changes can be made before, during, or after assembly and even remotely while the solar panel is in orbit. The flexibility provided by the present invention is especially advantageous in situations in which the use of a solar panel requires changes to its output requirements while the spacecraft is in orbit. With the present invention it is possible to alter the output current and voltage of each module, and ultimately of the solar panel in total.

Another advantage of the present invention is that each solar cell can be monitored individually. In the event of a failure, the reconfigurable module allows for the interconnection paths to be rerouted in order to avoid the failed solar cell. The reconfigurable design of the present invention allows for optimization and modification of the electrical configuration of the module, even after the module is physically assembled, and even after the spacecraft is in orbit.

FIG. 3 is an example of an electrical circuit that describes the function of the control integrated circuit chip 14 and how it provides monitoring, protection, and control of the solar cells in each module. All of the circuit components necessary to perform these functions can be placed on the integrated circuit chip 14.

Monitoring of each cell is achieved using a voltage monitoring circuit 20 as shown in FIG. 3. The voltage monitor 20 allows the control integrated circuit chip (not shown) to determine the functional state of the cell 16. The chip can determine whether the cell 16 is optimally functional, functional but with degraded performance, or not functional. Based on the state of the cell 16, the integrated circuit chip can determine if it should keep the cell use, or bypass the cell from the power generation system, and whether or not to reconfigure the cell string configuration.

In the example shown in FIG. 3, the transistors T1 and T2 are used to enable, disable, and reroute the signal paths to the cell 16. For example, if the cell 16 is functional, T1 is enabled and T2 is disabled. To bypass the cell 16, T2 is enabled and T1 is disabled.

decoding, solar, panel, output, voltages

The bypass scheme discussed above can also be used protect the cell 16. For example, it is possible to use the reconfiguration capability in order to prevent a reverse-bias condition, which may damage the solar cell 16. Reverse-bias is an undesirable condition that may occur due to partial shadowing of the solar panel.

FIG. 4 is a schematic of a group of solar cells having a reserve group 22 that is activated only when excess power is needed. In FIG. 4, the panel 10 has modules 12 arranged in a predefined pattern. A predetermined number of modules 12 form a reserve group 22 that is reserved for excess power demands. A transistor T1 is turned off and a transistor T2 is turned on. A voltage monitor 20 is used to compare the output voltage of the panel to a predetermined value. The comparison is used to decide when to activate the reserve group 22.

It should be noted that while T1 is shown in two places in FIG. 4, it is the same transistor. The connection as indicated in FIG. 4 is possible when all of the transistors are located on one integrated circuit chip. However, one skilled in the art is capable of accomplishing the same results with discrete components as well.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 4 avoids generating excess power at the beginning of the panel’s life and reserves the power available in the reserve group 22 for the additional power and voltage that is typically required at the end of the panel’s life. An advantage of this embodiment is that there is no need to dissipate excess energy typically generated at the beginning of the panel’s life. The excess energy is typically dissipated at the satellite as excess heat. By avoiding the need to dissipate excess energy, the surface area of the satellite’s heat dissipating surface can be reduced, thereby resulting in a weight reduction as well.

The modularized design of the present invention provides a solar panel system that is versatile and easily manufactured. The present invention allows for optimization of the electrical configuration of the module at any point during the module’s construction and use. Prior art methods rely on hard-wired configuration, which can only be modified by altering the physical wiring scheme. The present invention has a standard physical layout and the different electrical configurations are achieved by way of electrical routing of strings of cells rather than hard-wired modifications. Therefore, the present invention is extremely flexible and capable of accommodating different power generation requirements and specifications.

Additionally, manufacturing of the present invention is simplified over prior art assemblies. The standard physical layout can be mass-produced, as opposed to having to produce a panel that is specifically manufactured for a particular application on a spacecraft. With the modular design of the present invention, automation in assembly and testing can be realized. These advantages result in significant manufacturing cost reductions.

The modularity of the standardized design according to the present invention, allows for individual testing, assembly, and reconfiguration of each module prior to mounting the modules to the panel, and even thereafter. Another advantage of the modularity is the capability of the present invention to control and monitor each solar cell individually, using a centralized integrated circuit chip. This eliminates redundancy in the circuit and reduces the cost associated with duplicate circuits.

While particular embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, numerous variations and alternate embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is intended that the invention be limited only in terms of the appended claims.

Claims ( 14 )

at least one integrated circuit having a program defining a reconfigurable sub-pattern from said pattern of interconnecting path options, said plurality of solar cells being connected by said reconfigurable sub-pattern; and

an integrated circuit located on said solar panel system being in communication with each of said at least one integrated circuits located on each of said at least one solar cell module.

The system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said printed circuit board medium is made of a rigid material.

The system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said printed circuit board medium is made of a flexible material.

The system as claimed in claim 1 wherein said plurality of solar cells further comprises a number of solar cells being reserved for providing excess power to said solar panel system.

The system as claimed in claim 4 wherein said system has a threshold voltage output and wherein said system further comprises a voltage monitor for comparing said threshold voltage output to an actual voltage output and wherein said reserved solar cells are activated when said actual voltage output is less than said threshold voltage output.

A method for reconfiguring a solar panel system having at least one solar cell module having a plurality of solar cells mounted on a printed circuit board having a pattern of interconnecting path options for connecting said plurality of solar cells, said method comprising the steps of:

programming at least one integrated circuit chip having the capability of addressing each solar cell in said plurality of solar cells to define a signal route from said pattern of interconnecting path options and defining a power output and a current output for said solar panel system;

programming said at least one integrated circuit chip to communicate with each said integrated circuit chip on each of said at least one solar cell module.

The method as claimed in claim 6 further comprising the step of monitoring each of said plurality of solar cells.

determining an operation for said at least one solar cell based on said functional state of said solar cell.

The method as claimed in claim 8 wherein said step of determining a functional state of at least one solar cell further comprises using a voltage monitoring circuit.

The method as claimed in claim 6 further comprising the step of regulating the power of said solar panel system.

The method as claimed in claim 6 further comprising the step of protecting said solar panel system.

The method as claimed in claim 11 wherein said step of protecting said solar panel system further comprises the step of bypassing a solar cell that is operating in an undesirable state.

The method as claimed in claim 6 wherein said step of programming further comprises programming by remotely accessing said solar panel system.

A method for controlling a voltage output of a solar panel having at least one solar cell module having a plurality of solar cells mounted on a printed circuit board having a pattern of interconnection path options for connecting said plurality of solar cells, said plurality of solar cells having a number of solar cells as a reserve number, said method comprising the steps of:

programming at least one integrated circuit chip having the capability of addressing each solar cell in said plurality of solar cells to define a signal path routed from said pattern of interconnection path options and defining a power output and a current output for said solar panel;

comparing a threshold voltage output to an actual voltage output to determine if said actual voltage output is less than said threshold voltage output; and

activating said reserve number of solar cells to provide excess power to said solar panel when said actual voltage output is less than said threshold voltage output.

US09/580,286 2000-05-30 2000-05-30 Solar module array with reconfigurable tile Expired. Lifetime US6350944B1 ( en )

Priority Applications (3)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title

US09/580,286 US6350944B1 ( en )	2000-05-30	2000-05-30	Solar module array with reconfigurable tile
EP01109720.1A EP1160876B1 ( en )	2000-05-30	2001-04-20	Reconfigurable solar module array
JP2001160585A JP2002050782A ( en )	2000-05-30	2001-05-29	Solar module array comprising reconfigurable tile

Applications Claiming Priority (1)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title

US09/580,286 US6350944B1 ( en )

2000-05-30

Solar module array with reconfigurable tile

Family Applications (1)

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US09/580,286 Expired. Lifetime US6350944B1 ( en )

2000-05-30

Solar module array with reconfigurable tile

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Decoding Solar Panel Output: Voltages, Acronyms, and Jargon

For those that are new to solar power and photovoltaics (PV), unlocking the mysteries behind the jargon and acronyms is one of the most difficult early tasks. Solar panels have many different voltage figures associated with them. There is a good amount to learn when it comes to solar panel output.

Types of solar panel voltage:

Voltage at Open Circuit (VOC)
Voltage at Maximum Power (VMP or VPM)
Nominal Voltage
Temperature Corrected VOC
Temperature Coefficient of Voltage
Measuring Voltage and Solar Panel Testing

Voltage at Open Circuit (VOC)

What is the open circuit voltage of a solar panel? Voltage at open circuit is the voltage that is read with a voltmeter or multimeter when the module is not connected to any load. You would expect to see this number listed on a PV module’s specification sheet and sticker. This voltage is used when testing modules fresh out of the box and used later when doing temperature-corrected VOC calculations in system design. You can reference the chart below to find typical VOC values for different types of crystalline PV modules.

Nominal Voltage VOC – typical VMP – typical # of cells in series

12	21	17	36
18	30	24	48
18	33	26	54
20	36	29	60
24	42	35	72

Voltage at Maximum Power (VMP or VPM)

What is the Max Power Voltage of a solar panel? Voltage at maximum power is the voltage that occurs when the module is connected to a load and is operating at its peak performance output under standard test conditions (STC). You would expect to see this number listed on a modules specification sheet and sticker. VMP is at the place of the bend on an I-V curve; where the greatest power output of the module is. It is important to note that this voltage is not easily measured, and is also not related to system performance per se. It is not uncommon for a load or a battery bank to draw down the VMP of a module or array to a few volts lower than VMP while the system is in operation. The rated wattage of a PV module can be confirmed in calculations by multiplying the VMP of the module by the current at max power (IMP). The result should give you [email protected] or power at the maximum power point, the same as the module’s nameplate wattage. The VMP of a module generally works out to be 0.5 volts per cell connected in series within the module. You can reference the chart to find typical VMP values for different types of crystalline modules.

Nominal Voltage

What is the voltage of a solar panel? Nominal voltage is the voltage that is used as a classification method, as a carry-over from the days when battery systems were the only things going. You would NOT expect to see this number listed on a PV module’s specification sheet and sticker. This nomenclature worked really well because most systems had 12V or 24V battery banks. When you had a 12V battery to charge you would use a 12V module, end of story. The same held true with 24V systems. Because charging was the only game in town, the needs of the batteries dictated how many cells inside the PV should be wired in series and or parallel, so that under most weather conditions the solar modules would work to charge the battery(s). If you reference the chart, you can see that 12V modules generally had 36 cells wired in series, which over the years was found to be the optimum number for reliable charging of 12V batteries. It stands to reason that a 24V system would see the numbers double, and it holds true in the chart. Everything worked really well in this off grid solar system as the and evolved along the same nomenclature so that when you had a 12V battery and you wanted solar power, you knew you had to get a “12V” module and a “12V” controller. Even though the voltage from the solar module could be at 17VDC, and the charge controller would be charging at 14V, while the inverter was running happily at 13VDC input, the whole system was made up of 12V “nominal” components so that it would all work together. This worked well for a good while until maximum power point technology (MPPT) became available and started popping up. This meant that not all PV was necessarily charging batteries and that as MPPT technology evolved, even when PV was used in charging batteries, you were no longer required to use the same nominal voltage as your battery bank. String inverters changed the game for modules, as they were no longer forced in their design to be beholden to the voltage needs of deep cycle batteries. This shift allowed manufacturers to make modules based on physical size, wattage characteristics, and use other materials that produced module voltages completely unrelated to batteries. The first and most popular change occurred in what are now generally called 18V “nominal” modules. There are no 18V battery banks for RE systems. The modules acquired this name because their cell count and functional voltage ratings put them right in between the two existing categories of 12V and 24V “nominal” PV modules. Many modules followed with 48 to 60 cells, that produced voltages that were not a direct match for 12V or 24V nominal system components. To avoid bad system design and confusion, the 18V moniker was adopted by many in the industry but ultimately may have created more confusion among novices that did not understand the relationship between cells in series, VOC, VMP, and nominal voltage. With this understanding, things get a lot easier, and the chart should help to unlock some of the mystery.

Temperature-Corrected VOC

The temperature-corrected VOC value is required to ensure that when cold temperatures raise the VOC of an array, other connected equipment like MPPT controllers or grid tie inverters are not damaged. This calculation is done in one of two ways. The first way involves using the chart in NEC 690.7. The second way involves doing calculations with the Temperature Coefficient of Voltage and the coldest local temperature.

Temperature Coefficient of Voltage

What is a solar panel temperature coefficient? The temperature coefficient of a solar panel is the value represents the change in voltage based on temperature. Generally, it is used to calculate Cold Temp/Higher Voltage situations for array and component selection in cooler climates. This value may be presented as a percentage change from STC voltages per degree or as a voltage value change per degree temp change. This information was not easily found in the past, but is now more commonly seen on spec pages and sometimes module stickers.

Measuring Voltage and Solar Panel Testing

How do I measure voltage on a solar panel? Voltages can be read on a solar panel with the use of a voltmeter or multimeter. What you’ll see below is an example of a voltmeter measuring VOC with a junction box. This would be the view from the back of the PV module. Using a multimeter is the best way to measure solar panel output.

When researching solar panel output, it can be overwhelming to understand the different voltage figures and acronyms used. For those new to solar power and photovoltaics (PV), decoding the terminology can be a challenge. In this blog post, we will break down the basics of solar panel output, including voltage, acronyms, and jargon, to help you get up to speed.

What are solar amps and watts?

Solar amps and watts are two measurements of the amount of electrical energy that a solar panel produces. Solar amps (A) measure the rate of electric current produced by a photovoltaic cell, while solar watts (W) measure the amount of power delivered to an electrical load. Both solar amps and watts are related to the efficiency rating of residential solar panels. The higher the efficiency rating, the higher the number of solar amps and watts produced.

There are many types of 60-cell solar panels on the market for home solar applications, each with varying efficiency ratings and amp/watt outputs. High efficiency panels are capable of producing more solar watts than low-efficiency panels, although they tend to cost more upfront. By choosing the right panel, homeowners can ensure that their solar array is producing enough power to meet their electricity needs.

Why do solar panels have so many voltages associated with them?

Solar panels have a variety of voltage figures associated with them due to the different types of solar panels, their placement in a solar panel system, and their power production. The most common type of rooftop solar panel uses a direct current (DC) and produces a low voltage. This low voltage is typically between 20 and 40 volts, depending on the specific type of panel. To increase the voltage output, multiple solar panels can be wired together in a series or parallel connection, or both, depending on the specific solar energy system.

When solar panels are connected in a series, the voltages are added together. This means that connecting two 20-volt solar panels in series would yield a total voltage output of 40 volts. Connecting three panels in series would result in a 60-volt output, and so on. This method is often used when the total voltage needs to be higher than what a single panel can provide.

In contrast, when solar panels are connected in parallel, the wattage is added together. This means that connecting two 10-watt solar panels in parallel would yield a total wattage output of 20 watts. Connecting three panels in parallel would result in a 30-watt output, and so on. This method is often used when the total wattage needs to be higher than what a single panel can provide.

The voltage output of a solar panel also depends on its power production, which is measured by the manufacturer at Standard Test Conditions (STC).

What does STC mean?

STC is defined as an irradiance of 1,000 W/m2 and cell temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. Because real-world conditions are rarely equal to STC, the actual power output of a solar panel may differ from its rated output. This is why it’s important to understand the various voltages associated with your particular solar energy system to ensure it meets your needs. To determine solar panels rated output, you need to know two figures: the solar panel wattage (measured in watts) and solar panel efficiency (measured in percent). Solar installation involves connecting solar panels to a photovoltaic system that can use or store the generated electricity. The efficiency rating of solar panels varies depending on factors such as environment, angle, and geographic location, but typically ranges between 15–20%. Knowing what wattage solar panels generate helps determine their overall performance in terms of power production for any given solar installation project. Understanding the various voltages associated with solar energy systems can be challenging for those new to the technology but once you’ve grasped this knowledge, you’ll have the knowledge you need to make informed decisions about your own solar energy installation.

How many size should my solar panel be?

When choosing a solar panel size, you must consider your energy needs and the hours of sunlight available in your area. The size of the solar panel will determine how much electricity it can produce, measured in kilowatt hours (kWh). Your energy needs will determine the type of solar panel that you need.

If you’re looking to produce a specific amount of electricity, the total number of solar panels that you need will depend on their wattage rating. Generally, the higher the wattage rating, the more electricity it will generate. You can calculate how many solar panels you need to meet your energy requirements by dividing your kWh requirement by the wattage of each panel.

For example, if you have an energy requirement of 10 kWh per day and you are using solar panels with a rating of 250 watts, then you would need 40 solar panels.

When choosing the size of your solar panel, make sure to consider the hours of sunlight available in your area as well. The more sunlight available, the fewer solar panels you’ll need to meet your energy requirements.

In summary, the size of the solar panel that you need depends on your energy needs and the hours of sunlight available in your area. You can calculate how many panels you need to meet your energy requirements by dividing your kWh requirement by the wattage of each panel.

Shading losses in PV systems, and techniques to mitigate them

Welcome to the fifth installment in our six-part series on Solar PV Installer Basics 101. In the previous article. we covered how to correctly size a customer’s solar photovoltaic (PV) system based on their energy bills. This analysis offers a useful baseline. But for optimal results, it is important that your solar designs also factor in potential losses stemming from PV system shading.

Mitigating this problem is the subject of today’s article. Need more information on PV system losses in general? Download The Ultimate Guide to PV System Losses.

What is PV system shade loss?

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems generate electricity via the photovoltaic effect — whenever sunlight knocks electrons loose in the silicon materials that make up solar PV cells. As such, whenever a solar cell or panel does not receive sunlight — due to a shading or nearby obstructions — the entire installation generates less overall solar power. This phenomenon is known as PV system shade loss.

Shading can come from a variety of different sources, including:

Nearby objects, such as buildings, trees, antennae, or poles
“Self-shading” from other PV panel rows
Horizon shading from the terrain surrounding the installation site
Other factors such as panel orientation. soiling, or differential aging

Understanding the effects of shade on PV output

Intuition suggests that the power output of the panel will be reduced proportionally by the area that is shaded.

However, this is not the case.

In his book, Renewable Energy and Efficient Electric Power Systems. Stanford University’s Gil Masters demonstrates how shading just one out of 36 cells in a small solar module can reduce total power output by as much as 75%.

Shading just 1/36 of the cells can reduce power output by 75%.

Why can minimal shading cause severe power loss?

To conceptualize why shading results in such severe losses, it is helpful to use the analogy of water flowing in pipes. The flow rate of water through the pipe is constant, much like the current through a cell string is constant for a given irradiance level.

Shading a solar cell is similar to introducing a clog in a water pipe. The clog restricts the flow of water through the entire pipe. Similarly, when a solar cell is shaded, the electrical current through the entire string is reduced.

This is significant because every PV cell in the cell string has to operate at the current set by the shaded cell. This limitation prevents the unshaded cells from operating at peak performance. In essence, every solar cell is like a link in a chain. The shaded cell is the “weakest link,” reducing all the remaining cells’ power availability. This explains why even partial shading can have such a dramatic effect on the total power output of a solar PV system.

Similar principles apply to PV modules connected together.

The current flowing through an entire string of modules can be heavily reduced if even just a single module is shaded. As a result, the entire PV system underperforms — failing to deliver the energy, savings, and carbon offsets the customer is expecting.

How to reduce shading losses

As an installer, there are a number of different solar design strategies you can use to reduce shading losses. These include using different stringing arrangements, bypass diodes, and module-level power electronics (MLPEs).

Stringing Arrangements

Modules connected in series form strings, and strings can be connected in parallel to an inverter. The electrical current through all the modules of a string must be the same. By contrast, the voltage of parallel strings must be the same.

As we saw in the last section, a shaded module in a string can bring down the power output of the string significantly. However, a shaded module in one string does not reduce the power output of a parallel string. Therefore, by grouping shaded modules into separate strings, it’s possible to maximize the total overall power output of the solar array.

For example, in a commercial system with parapet walls, it can be beneficial to group modules that receive shade from the parapets into strings — and keep modules that do not receive shade in separate, parallel strings. This way, the unshaded strings can maintain a higher current and power output.

Bypass Diodes

Bypass diodes are devices within a module that allow the electrical current to “skip over” shaded regions of the solar module. By using bypass diodes, the higher current of the unshaded cell strings can flow around the shaded cell string. However, this comes at the expense of losing the solar output of the PV cells that are skipped over.

In theory, you could install a dedicated bypass diode for each solar cell. But for cost reasons, a typical solar module will have only three bypass diodes, effectively grouping the cells into three series cell strings (see below). For instance, a 60-cell module will typically have one bypass diode for every 20 cells.

Module Level Power Electronics (MLPEs)

MLPEs are devices that are attached to individual modules to increase performance under shaded conditions (though there are other benefits, such as mismatch mitigation and module-level monitoring).

This is done by performing maximum power point tracking at the module level. MLPEs include DC optimizers and microinverters.

A DC optimizer adjusts its output voltage and current to maintain maximum power without compromising the performance of other solar modules.

For instance, when a shaded module produces electricity with a lower electrical current, the DC optimizer will boost the current at its output to match the current flowing through the unshaded modules. To compensate, the optimizer reduces its output voltage by the same amount it boosts the current. This allows the shaded PV module to produce the same amount of electrical power without impeding the output of other solar modules. A system using DC optimizers still needs an inverter to convert direct current (DC) electricity into alternating current (AC) power for the home or business.

Instead of having a single solar inverter servicing all of the PV panels in a system, each panel can have a small “microinverter” attached to it to convert its output from DC to AC. Since each microinverter has an MPPT, and their outputs are connected in parallel, each panel will operate at its maximum power point — without impacting the other panels in the PV system.

Shade loss techniques compared using Aurora Solar

Using Aurora Solar’s PV design simulation engine, we compared the performance of three different photovoltaic systems under similar shading conditions.

As shown in the figure below, we placed a 3.12 kW system near the edge of a roof, which has tall trees next to it. Note that while this design effectively showcases the performance difference of these system topologies in shaded conditions, it is not necessarily an optimal —or even a practical — design. Our findings are summarized in the “Results” table below.

Results

Results from PV system performance simulations on a Palo Alto home using different MLPE components. The difference between the two MLPE outputs is attributed to the differences in their inverters’ efficiencies.

System Topology	Annual Yield	Improvement with MLPEs
String Inverter	2,585 kWh/year	N/A
Microinverters	3,033 kWh/year	17.3%
DC Optimizers	3,035 kWh/year	17.3%

Our results show that using MLPEs under these conditions increases system output by 17.3% annually. The effective yield of a PV system using a microinverter or a DC optimizer is approximately the same, although there could be small differences (/- 1%) in some cases due to efficiency curve variations.

For the same reason that they can mitigate shade losses by decoupling module output, MLPEs can eliminate module-to-module mismatch losses. These losses are typically caused by manufacturing variations that lead to slight differences in the electrical characteristics of two solar PV modules of the same type. Since MLPEs allow the modules to operate independently of one another, these variations will not impact the PV system’s overall performance.

Solar Installer Basics 101: A Series

Shade Losses for PV Systems (and How to Mitigate Them) is the fifth installment in Solar PV Installer Basics 101 — a comprehensive 6-part series designed to help installers navigate the industry’s fast-evolving solar terrain.

See the other articles here:

Have more questions? Schedule a quick, no-pressure demo to learn more.

Solar cell module array

An array of solar panels is collection of solar panels connected that are connected to generate more electricity and absorb sunlight.

A combination of solar arrays with one or more solar converters (and possibly a battery) makes a fully-functional system for powering the sun. A solar array is part of the solar power systems that supply power. This power can be utilized to power homes, or exported to the grid.

Home Solar Array

Solar arrays are easily installed wherever there is good sunlight. Solar arrays can be located in the rooftop of your home. Solar arrays facing to the south of the United States receive the maximum sun’s rays and generate the most power. The number of panels needed to cover your electricity usage is also dependent on the location of the panel, with respect to your geographical location as well as the design itself.

You could also put solar panels over ground mounts. This is a common option for solar farms as well as rural regions where land is typically cheaper.

Solar arrays can also be utilized to store energy in systems such as solar batteries that are used in off-grid environments, such as hunting cabins. There are also specializations for solar arrays, like those that are that are integrated in buildings.

Solar Array Types

There are three types: roof-mounted, ground mounted, and carports. Every type of pv panel installation serves a different purpose, so what works in one school might not be suitable for another.

Rooftop ArraysThe most commonly used kind of solar array is the roof mount. Install the solar rack to hold multiple pv panels directly on your roof. Panels can be attached to sloped or flat roofs constructed of metal, rubber or shingle. Roof mounts allow you to attach roofs in areas which would otherwise be impossible. Installing costs are generally lower than those for a ground mounted system. Roof mounts aren’t bulky and can protect your roof from damage caused by certain elements.

Ground-Mount Arrays The arrays that are mounted on the ground tend to be the most popular. They provide the highest energy per kW. They can be set in any direction and angle to increase energy production. They are easy to access for maintenance. but they require clear ground. They can also be shaded by trees that are nearby or power poles structures.

Carports – Overhead canopy designed to protect parking spaces is known as solar carports. Both ground mount solar and solar cars do not require a surface to mount the panels. The canopies permit installers to set panels at optimal angles for maximum sunlight hits. Solar panel carports are better than panels that are mounted on the ground.

Solar Array Installation Cost

A complete solar panel for your home system can cost between 18,000 and 20,000. According to our costs estimates this figure assumes a pre-incentive price of between 2.75 to 3.35 for each solar watt.

The equipment required to construct the solar array costs between 5,800 and 7,850. The remaining costs are primarily to install an solar inverter(s), and the cost for the installation.

Solar Panel

Solar panels can be used to serve a variety of purposes such as Remote power for cabins as well as remote sensing. Additionally, you can generate electricity with commercial or residential electrical systems that are solar powered. Photovoltaic modules are made up of photovoltaic cell circuits that have been sealed in an environmentally-protective laminate. They are the fundamental building elements of solar power systems. Photovoltaic panels are made up of one or more PV modules that can be assembled to form a pre-wired, field-installable device.

Solar Panel for Your Home

The best chance to make money and be successful is the promise of one solar panel to power your home. What number of panels do you need? than 2 million homeowners have installed solar panels. [xfield-company] received more than 60,000. This is the highest number of homeowners requesting quotes for residential solar panels.

The solar power cost is dependent on the location you live in and the amount your utility company charges for electricity. In addition, how much energy you consume.

Another term is PV Module. It’s a set of PV cells, which are also known by the name solar cell. Combinations of PV modules are also called PV panels, and they are linked to create the necessary power and current. This huge array is known as a PV array. A PV module is an element of any Photovoltaic device that converts sunlight into electricity. resulting in DC current (DC), or solar electricity. To deliver the necessary voltage and current the PV module may be connected in series or parallel.

Types of Solar Panels

Solar panels from different manufacturers can have diverse designs and specifications. The majority of solar panels fall into one of three categories: monocrystalline, thin film, or polycrystalline.

The three kinds of panels may not offer the same efficiency or physical characteristics, but they’re all equally efficient. Each panel has its pros and cons.

They last longer than the traditional silicon-based panels. Each kind that is available will be explained below.

Monocrystalline Solar Panels Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency. They utilize a special manufacturing process to get the most out of silicon, the main material. Monocrystalline panels are created of silicon ingots that have very high quality. The wafers are cut into thin wafers which are arranged in a grid-like form. Each silicon wafer is distinct and easily distinguishable. The panel appears black. Monocrystalline panels are created of silicon ingots that have the highest purity. They are incredibly efficient in producing electricity. The panels are rated at an initial efficiency rating 21.5%.3 They are also very compact and can perform under low-light conditions more effectively than other panels. This type of panels have an important disadvantage. They are more expensive than more Spanels. However, costs can vary significantly between panel manufacturers and designs. Monocrystalline panels create more waste because of their cylindrical silicon ingots. The edges of each wafer are discarded during manufacturing.

Polycrystalline solar panels These solar panels are more economical as compared to monocrystalline solar cells. Polycrystalline panels are created out of silicon that has been melted. Then, it is poured into square wafers. This melting process makes almost all the materials accessible, which eliminates the need for waste the process of manufacturing. These panels are relatively efficient with an average efficiency of 13% to 16 percent. But, they don’t perform like monocrystalline panels. They don’t do as well in extreme heat or low light conditions. Polycrystalline panels tend to be larger, and may have a shimmering blue color that’s less appealing than monocrystalline and thin-film panels.

Thin-Film Panels : Solar panels made of thin film aren’t composed of silicon like other kinds of. They are constructed from alternative photovoltaic media, which are put on a very small layer of the substrate. This unique construction gives rise to some very distinctive panel characteristics. Although they are not the same efficient as polycrystalline or monocrystalline panels, thin-film panels can still be used for various applications. They can also be visually appealing in locations in which traditional solar panels may be unable to compete. The disadvantages of thin-film solar cells have made them less popular, particularly in residential regions. The solar cells are interconnected however they aren’t suitable for all roof designs because of the low efficiency rating as well as large space requirements. The solar cells are less stable and can degrade more quickly than traditional panels.

Solar Panel Installation Cost

The price to install a solar array, or solar cell in San Fernando, LA is 2.50/W in April 2022. A typical solar panel with 5 Kilowatts (kW) costs between 10,625 to 14,375. The median cost for solar installation for San Fernando is 12,500. The net price of solar could fall by thousands of dollars after taking into consideration the 26 percent Federal Investment Tax Credit, (ITC) as well as other local or state incentives.

These costs are common for solar buyers who compare solar quotes from [xfield-company] Marketplace. [xfield-company] Marketplace. You could find solar panel that are up to 20% cheaper than working with one firm when you evaluate solar panel quotes on the [xfield-company] solar marketplace.

What is the difference between Solar Array and Solar Panels?

If you’re thinking about solar for your business or home It’s crucial to comprehend the distinction between solar arrays and solar panels. Although they appear to be like they are similar, there are fundamental differences that will determine the best option for you. In this blog post we’ll go over the distinctions of solar panel arrays and solar solar, to help you make an informed choice about the best option for you!

The main distinction between solar arrays and solar panels are the individual solar cells that make up the solar array. Arrays are comprised of solar panels, and they work together to produce electricity.

Arrays can be customized fit your specific energy needs while panels are standard units. Solar arrays are also generally more expensive than solar panels, but they provide more flexibility with regards to design and performance.

In the realm of solar power there are two major types of solar power: photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP). PV solar makes use of sunlight directly to generate electricity, while CSP uses mirrors or lenses to FOCUS sunlight on an area of a limited size to generate heat, which is then utilized to generate electricity. Solar arrays can be either PV or CSP, but all solar panels will be PV.

But, if you’re in a tight budget and only want an affordable solar system solar panels could be the way to go. Whatever option you decide to go with, solar power is a great way to save money on your energy bills and also improve the environmental impact!

If you have questions regarding solar arrays or solar panels, please feel free to contact our team of experts at [xfield-company] and our network of solar firms. We’ll be glad to help you select the best option for your needs and answer any questions you may have. Great company to work with! We put up a solar panel in the summer of 2013 and are saving a lot of money.

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August 25, 2020

Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics

Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, convert sunlight directly into electricity.

Photovoltaics (often shortened as PV) gets its name from the process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage), which is called the photovoltaic effect. This phenomenon was first exploited in 1954 by scientists at Bell Laboratories who created a working solar cell made from silicon that generated an electric current when exposed to sunlight. Solar cells were soon being used to power space satellites and smaller items such as calculators and watches. Today, electricity from solar cells has become cost competitive in many regions and photovoltaic systems are being deployed at large scales to help power the electric grid.

Silicon Solar Cells

The vast majority of today’s solar cells are made from silicon and offer both reasonable and good efficiency (the rate at which the solar cell converts sunlight into electricity). These cells are usually assembled into larger modules that can be installed on the roofs of residential or commercial buildings or deployed on ground-mounted racks to create huge, utility-scale systems.

Thin-Film Solar Cells

Another commonly used photovoltaic technology is known as thin-film solar cells because they are made from very thin layers of semiconductor material, such as cadmium telluride or copper indium gallium diselenide. The thickness of these cell layers is only a few micrometers—that is, several millionths of a meter.

Thin-film solar cells can be flexible and lightweight, making them ideal for portable applications—such as in a soldier’s backpack—or for use in other products like Windows that generate electricity from the sun. Some types of thin-film solar cells also benefit from manufacturing techniques that require less energy and are easier to scale-up than the manufacturing techniques required by silicon solar cells.

III-V Solar Cells

A third type of photovoltaic technology is named after the elements that compose them. III-V solar cells are mainly constructed from elements in Group III—e.g., gallium and indium—and Group V—e.g., arsenic and antimony—of the periodic table. These solar cells are generally much more expensive to manufacture than other technologies. But they convert sunlight into electricity at much higher efficiencies. Because of this, these solar cells are often used on satellites, unmanned aerial vehicles, and other applications that require a high ratio of power-to-weight.

Next-Generation Solar Cells

Solar cell researchers at NREL and elsewhere are also pursuing many new photovoltaic technologies—such as solar cells made from organic materials, quantum dots, and hybrid organic-inorganic materials (also known as perovskites). These next-generation technologies may offer lower costs, greater ease of manufacture, or other benefits. Further research will see if these promises can be realized.

Reliability and Grid Integration Research

Photovoltaic research is more than just making a high-efficiency, low-cost solar cell. Homeowners and businesses must be confident that the solar panels they install will not degrade in performance and will continue to reliably generate electricity for many years. Utilities and government regulators want to know how to add solar PV systems to the electric grid without destabilizing the careful balancing act between electricity supply and demand.

Materials scientists, economic analysts, electrical engineers, and many others at NREL are working to address these concerns and ensure solar photovoltaics are a clean and reliable source of energy.

Additional Resources

For more information about solar photovoltaic energy, visit the following resources:

Solar Photovoltaic Technology BasicsU.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Sources:

https://patents.google.com/patent/US6350944B1/en
https://www.altestore.com/diy-solar-resources/solar-panels-pv-and-voltages/
https://aurorasolar.com/blog/shading-losses-in-pv-systems-and-techniques-to-mitigate-them/
https://la-solargroup.com/solar-array-vs-solar-panel/
https://www.nrel.gov/research/re-photovoltaics.html

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Decoding Solar Panel Output: Voltages, Acronyms, and Jargon. Solar cell module array

US6350944B1. Solar module array with reconfigurable tile. Google Patents

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Decoding Solar Panel Output: Voltages, Acronyms, and Jargon

Voltage at Open Circuit (VOC)

Voltage at Maximum Power (VMP or VPM)

Nominal Voltage

Temperature-Corrected VOC

Temperature Coefficient of Voltage

Measuring Voltage and Solar Panel Testing

What are solar amps and watts?

Why do solar panels have so many voltages associated with them?

What does STC mean?

How many size should my solar panel be?

Shading losses in PV systems, and techniques to mitigate them

What is PV system shade loss?

Understanding the effects of shade on PV output

Why can minimal shading cause severe power loss?

How to reduce shading losses

Stringing Arrangements

Bypass Diodes

Module Level Power Electronics (MLPEs)

Shade loss techniques compared using Aurora Solar

Results

Solar Installer Basics 101: A Series

See the other articles here:

Solar cell module array

Home Solar Array

Solar Array Types

Solar Array Installation Cost

Solar Panel

Solar Panel for Your Home

Types of Solar Panels

Solar Panel Installation Cost

What is the difference between Solar Array and Solar Panels?

Solar, Roofing, Battery, and Beyond – Making It All Work

How to Conquer your SCE Time-of-Use Rate with Battery Power

Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics

Silicon Solar Cells

Thin-Film Solar Cells

III-V Solar Cells

Next-Generation Solar Cells

Reliability and Grid Integration Research

Additional Resources

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